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- Chapter 1
- GETTING STARTED
-
- WHAT IS AN IDENTIFIER
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- Before you can do anything in any language, you must at least
- know how to name an identifier. An identifier is used for any
- variable, function, data definition, etc. In the programming
- language C, an identifier is a combination of alphanumeric
- characters, the first being a letter of the alphabet or an
- underline, and the remaining being any letter of the alphabet,
- any numeric digit, or the underline. In the case of some
- compilers, a dollar sign is permitted but not as the first
- character of an identifier. It should be pointed out that even
- though a dollar sign may be permitted by your C compiler, it is
- not used anywhere in this tutorial since it is not in general
- use by C programmers, and is not even allowed by most compilers.
- If you do not plan to write any portable code, you can use it at
- will if you feel it makes your code more readable.
-
- Two rules must be kept in mind when naming identifiers.
-
- 1. The case of alphabetic characters is significant. Using
- INDEX for a variable name is not the same as using index and
- neither of them is the same as using InDeX for a variable
- name. All three refer to different variables.
-
- 2. According to the ANSI-C standard, at least 31 significant
- characters can be used and will be considered significant by
- a conforming ANSI-C compiler. If more than 31 are used,
- they may be ignored by any given compiler.
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- WHAT ABOUT THE UNDERLINE?
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- Even though the underline can be used as part of a variable name,
- and adds greatly to the readability of the resulting code, it
- seems to be used very little by experienced C programmers. A few
- underlines are used for illustration in this tutorial. Since
- most compiler writers use the underline as the first character
- for variable names internal to the system, you should refrain
- from using the underline to begin a variable to avoid the possi-
- bility of a name clash. To get specific, identifiers with two
- leading underscores are reserved for the compiler as well as
- identifiers beginning with a single underscore and using an upper
- case alphabetic character for the second. If you make it a point
- of style to never use an identifier with a leading underline, you
- will never have a naming clash with the system.
-
- It adds greatly to the readability of a program to use descrip-
- tive names for variables and it would be to your advantage to do
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- Chapter 1 - Getting Started
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- so. Pascal programmers tend to use long descriptive names, but
- most C programmers tend to use short cryptic names. Most of the
- example programs in this tutorial use very short names for that
- reason, but a few longer names are used for illustrative purposes.
-
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- KEYWORDS
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- There are 32 words defined as keywords in C. These have prede-
- fined uses and cannot be used for any other purpose in a C
- program. They are used by the compiler as an aid to compiling
- the program. They are always written in lower case. A complete
- list follows;
-
- auto double int struct
- break else long switch
- case enum register typedef
- char extern return union
- const float short unsigned
- continue for signed void
- default goto sizeof volatile
- do if static while
-
- In addition to this list of keywords, your compiler may define a
- few more. If it does, they will be listed in the documentation
- that came with your compiler. Each of the above keywords will be
- defined, illustrated, and used in this tutorial.
-
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- WE NEED DATA AND A PROGRAM
- -----------------------------------------------------------------
- Any computer program has two entities to consider, the data, and
- the program. They are highly dependent on one another and care-
- ful planning of both will lead to a well planned and well written
- program. Unfortunately, it is not possible to study either
- completely without a good working knowledge of the other. For
- that reason, this tutorial will jump back and forth between
- teaching methods of program writing and methods of data
- definition. Simply follow along and you will have a good under-
- standing of both. Keep in mind that, even though it seems
- expedient to sometimes jump right into coding the program, time
- spent planning the data structures will be well spent and the
- quality of the final program will reflect the original planning.
-
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- HOW THIS TUTORIAL IS WRITTEN
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- As you go through the example programs, you will find that every
- program is complete. There are no program fragments that could
- be confusing. This allows you to see every requirement that is
- needed to use any of the features of C as they are presented.
- Some tutorials I have seen give very few, and very complex
- examples. They really serve more to confuse the student. This
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- Chapter 1 - Getting Started
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- tutorial is the complete opposite because it strives to cover
- each new aspect of programming in as simple a context as possible.
- This method, however, leads to a lack of knowledge in how the
- various parts are combined. For that reason, the last chapter is
- devoted entirely to using the features taught in the earlier
- chapters. It will illustrate how to put the various features
- together to create a usable program. They are given for your
- study, and are not completely explained. Enough details of their
- operation are given to allow you to understand how they work
- after you have completed all of the previous lessons.
-
- Throughout this tutorial, keywords, variable names, and function
- names will be given in boldface as an aid to the student. These
- terms will be completely defined throughout the tutorial.
-
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- RESULT OF EXECUTION
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- The result of executing each program will be given in comments at
- the end of the program listing, after the comment is defined in
- about the fourth program of chapter 2. If you feel confident
- that you completely understand the program, you can simply refer
- to the result of execution to see if you understand the result.
- In this case, it will not be necessary for you to compile and
- execute every program. It would be a good exercise for you to
- compile and execute some of them however, because all C compilers
- will not generate exactly the same results and you need to get
- familiar with your own compiler.
-
- At this point, you should load and run =================
- FIRSTEX.C if you have not yet done so, to FIRSTEX.C
- see that your C compiler is properly loaded =================
- and operating. Don't worry about what the
- program does yet. In due time you will understand it completely.
-
- Note that this program may give you a warning that printf() is
- undefined. Whether or not you get the warning depends on your
- compiler and how it is set up. At this point, you can completely
- ignore this warning. We will cover the reason for the warning
- later in this tutorial.
-
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- A WORD ABOUT COMPILERS
- -----------------------------------------------------------------
- All of the example programs in this tutorial will compile and
- execute correctly with any good ANSI compatible C compiler. Some
- compilers have gotten extremely complex and hard to use for a
- beginning C programmer, and some only compile and build MS
- Windows programs. Fortunately, most of the C compilers available
- have a means of compiling a standard C program which is written
- for the DOS environment. You should check your documentation for
- the capabilities and limitations of your compiler. If you have
-
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- Chapter 1 - Getting Started
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- not yet purchased a C compiler, you should find one that is
- ANSI-C compliant, and that generates a DOS executable.
-
-
- A DISCUSSION OF SOME OF THE FILES
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- LIST.EXE
-
- This file will list the source files on your printer for
- you with the filename and line numbers. To use it, simply type
- LIST followed by the appropriate filename. At the user prompt,
- enter the command LIST FIRSTEX.C now for an example. C source
- code is given in Chapter 14 for this program along with a brief
- description of its operation. After you have completed your
- study of C, you will have the ability to read and understand the
- source code for this program.
-
-
- PRINTALL.BAT
-
- This is a batch file that will call the above LIST.EXE file once
- for each of the example C programs, printing all of the files out.
- If you want a hardcopy of all of the files, enter the command
- PRINTALL at the user prompt and watch as your printer fills about
- 100 sheets of paper with C programs.
-
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- THE \ANSWERS DIRECTORY
- -----------------------------------------------------------------
- There is a directory on the distribution disk named ANSWERS which
- contains an answer to each of the programming exercises given at
- the end of the chapters. You should attempt to do original work
- on each of the exercises before referring to these answers in
- order to gain your own programming experience. These answers are
- given for your information in case you are completely stuck on
- how to solve a particular problem. These answers are not meant
- to be the only answer, since there are many ways to program
- anything, but they are meant to illustrate one way to solve the
- suggested programming problem.
-
- The answers are all in executable files named in the format
- CHnn_m.C where nn is the chapter number, and m is the exercise
- number. If more than one answer is required, an A, B, or C is
- included following the exercise number.
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